 Positive
Reinforcement: A Proactive Intervention for Individuals in the
Classroom
Reinforcement is a stimulus that is both
contingent upon and follows a behavior and increases the probability
of a behavior being repeated. As mentioned earlier, positive reinforcement
can increase the probability of both desirable and undesirable behavior.
For example, if a student whines in order to get attention and is successful
in getting it, the attention serves as positive reinforcement that increases
the likelihood that the student will continue to whine.
This lesson describes reinforcers that
are effective in changing student behavior and how to select and deliver
appropriate reinforcers. Because there is much literature on this topic,
you are strongly encouraged to consult additional resources for a more
in-depth discussion of positive reinforcement. Additionally, negative
reinforcement and satiation (when a reinforcer loses its effectiveness)
are also discussed.
What are different types of reinforcers?
Natural and Direct Reinforcement. This type of reinforcement
results directly from the appropriate behavior. For example, interacting
appropriately with peers in group activities will lead to more invitations
to join such activities. The natural reinforcement for appropriate behaviors
related to the student seeking attention, help, participation, etc.,
is providing the student with attention, help, and opportunity to participate.
The goal should always be to move the student to natural and intrinsic
reinforcement.
Social Reinforcers. These reinforcers are socially
mediated by teachers, parents, other adults, and peers who express approval
and praise for appropriate behavior. Comments (“Good job,”
“I can tell you are working really hard,” “You’re
nice”), written approval (“Super”), and expressions
of approval (nodding your head, smiling, clapping, a pat on the back)
are all very effective reinforcers.
Activity Reinforcers. Activity reinforcers are effective
and positive feedback for students. Allowing students to participate
in preferred activities (such as games, computer time, etc.) is very
powerful, especially if part of the reinforcement is being allowed to
choose a classmate with whom to participate in the activity. This also
provides social reinforcement from the classmate.
Tangible Reinforcers. This category includes edibles,
toys, balloons, stickers, and awards. Edibles and toys should be used
with caution. Parents may have reason to object to edibles as reinforcement
(e.g., if a student has allergies, a weight problem, etc.), and toys
can make other students envious. Awards can be certificates, displayed
work, or letters home to parents commending the student’s progress.
These are powerful motivational reinforcers.
Token Reinforcement. Token reinforcement involves
awarding points or tokens for appropriate behavior. These rewards have
little intrinsic value but can be exchanged for something of value.
Isn't giving reinforcement like bribing a student?
Planned, positive reinforcement is very
effective in promoting desirable change in student behavior. Some teachers
question whether reinforcing or rewarding students for improving their
behavior is really just bribing them to do what is desired. This is
not the case. A bribe is something that is unacceptable, inappropriate,
or illegal. Reinforcement is given to bring about desirable change
and to teach students to take responsibility for behavior. Your
paycheck is reinforcement for doing your job, and commendations and
bonuses are reinforcements for going above and beyond expectations.
Without these reinforcements, would you exhibit the appropriate behavior
of showing up at work each day?
How should I choose a reinforcer?
Reinforcers must be valued, preferred,
and individualized. What may be extremely motivating for one student
may be entirely useless for another. Use the following guidelines in
choosing a reinforcer.
Observe the student. What kinds of activities does
he or she seek out? What objects or events are presently serving to
reinforce his or her behavior?
Ask the student. When designing a plan to modify behavior,
give the student a list of choices, and ask what he or she would like
to try to earn. For example, if setting up a token system for work completed,
let the student choose from a list of activities to find out what he
or she is interested in earning.
Monitor. Periodically review by observation and discussion
whether the reinforcer remains preferred or whether a new reinforcer
is necessary.
Evaluate. Do a formal preference assessment.
How should reinforcement be delivered?
In order to make positive reinforcement
an effective intervention, use the following guidelines.
 1.
Reinforcement must be consistently delivered, according to a
planned reinforcement
schedule .
(If it is not, no connection will develop between appropriate behavior,
and the reinforcement and the behavior will not change.
2.
Reinforcement must be delivered immediately. Students
should know when to expect reinforcement. If you wait until the end
of the day to reinforce a student for remaining in her seat during second
period, the effect of reinforcement is reduced or lost. If it is impossible
to deliver reinforcement immediately, verbal reinforcement should be
given, and the student should be told when he or she can expect to receive
other reinforcement. In this way, a contingency between behavior and
reinforcement will be strengthened or maintained.
3.
Improvement should be reinforced. Do not wait until
the student’s behavior is perfect to deliver reinforcement. You
should recognize improvement, and let the student know that you recognize
the effort.
4.
Do not give reinforcement because you feel sorry for a student.
If a student does not achieve the required criterion, delivering reinforcement
will only teach the student that rewards are readily available regardless
of behavior. This could lead to an escalation of the behavior. Rather,
recognize that the student is disappointed, and let them know they will
have the opportunity to try again tomorrow. To be effective,
reinforcement must be contingent on behavior.
5.
Whenever possible, pair any reinforcement with social reinforcement.
If your reinforcement is letting students participate in preferred activities,
make sure to give some sort of social reinforcement, such as telling
the student, “You really did an excellent job today. You should
be really proud of yourself,” or let the student choose a classmate
with whom to participate in the activity.
6.
Make sure that social reinforcers are not ambiguous.
They should be sincere, clear, and identify the specific behavior for
which they are being delivered.
7.
Reinforcement should be age-appropriate. Expecting
a high-school student to change his behavior by rewarding him with stickers
is likely to be ineffective and insulting to the student.
What is negative reinforcement?
Negative
reinforcement
is often—mistakenly—equated with punishment. Punishment
is the application of aversive stimuli in order to reduce the chance
of a behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement is the removal
of aversive stimuli in order to increase the probability of a behavior
being repeated. For example, reinforcing students for appropriately
using class time to do math work by removing five story problems from
the math homework is not effective. This reinforcement negatively reinforces
appropriate behavior by removing the undesirable stimuli of a longer
homework assignment.
Negative reinforcement can be very effective,
especially to create an environment that feels safe to a student. It
is often naturally occurring. As with other reinforcements, it is important
to pair negative with social reinforcement.
What is satiation, and how should it be handled?
Satiation
is the term used to describe when a reinforcer loses its effectiveness.
For example, if a student is receiving jellybeans as reinforcement,
eventually he or she might no longer find them desirable. Satiation
can also occur from too much reinforcement. Earning 10 minutes of computer
time a day may serve as reinforcement for a long period of time, while
being earning an hour of computer time a day, for example, may quickly
lead to satiation.
When satiation begins, the rate at which
the desired behavior is displayed tapers off until it halts. This is
very common with edible reinforcers. Reinforcement in the form of social
opportunities or learning activities tend to be more resistant to satiation.
Zirpoli and Melloy (1993) recommend the
following to prevent satiation:
Varying
the reinforcer or using a different reinforcer for each target behavior.
Monitoring
the amount of reinforcement delivered and using only enough to maintain
the target behavior.
Avoiding
edible reinforcers (if you must use edibles, vary and apply minimally).
Moving
from a constant to an intermittent schedule
of reinforcement
as soon as possible.
Moving
from primary
to secondary
reinforcers as soon as possible.
Furthermore, any reinforcement schedule
or plan should include ongoing, systematic assessment of its effectiveness
through observation. Another option is incorporating a menu of potential
reinforcers and allowing the student to choose his or her reinforcement.
It is likely that satiation will eventually
occur with any type of reinforcement. If systematic assessment is diligently
carried out, however, one can maintain the behavior modification plan
by changing reinforcers before satiation occurs and by delivering reinforcement
on varying schedules.
Finally, in designing a positive reinforcement
plan, it is very important to move from less natural reinforcement (tokens,
tangibles) to more natural reinforcement (social, direct, and natural
reinforcement).
Material in this lesson has been adapted with permission from:
Burke, J. C. (1992). Decreasing classroom behavior problems: Practical guidelines for teachers. San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, Inc.
Collins, M. M., & Fontenelle, D. H. (1982). Changing student behaviors: A positive approach. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc.
Walden, E. L., & Thompson, S. A. (1981). A review of some alternative approaches to drug management of hyperactivity in children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 14, 213-217.
Zirpoli, T. J., & Melloy, K. J. (1993). Behavior management: Applications for teachers and parents. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
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